Describe the material milieu for the rise of Buddhism and Jainism in the sixth century BCE.

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 Scholars have contemplated over the fact as to why Buddhism and Jainism arose in north eastern India? Both the heterodox religions cannot be simply understood as a reaction again the growing rigidity and ritualism of the Brahmanas. If this had been so, then such religious ideas would have emerged in western UP where there was a more rigid entrenchment of brahmanical principles. R. S. Sharma believes that the answer has to be sought within the material conditions of the life of the people. Let us examine some of his observations below:

 

1)      Iron had been introduced in western UP by 1000 BCE and it gradually spread to eastern UP. Evidence for the use of iron has been documented at the sites of Prahladpur (Dist. of Varanasi), Chirand (Bihar), Vaisali, Sonpur (Gaya) etc. between 8th to 5th century BCE. Between 600-300 BCE eastern UP saw the advent of plough, iron axe, share and sickle in agriculture. This led to the clearing of jungles and large settlements came up. R. S. Sharma believes that the existing socio-economic conditions were not conducive for the growth of agriculture. Cattle wealth was being decimated in the land of Kuru and Pancala in western UP through slaughter in sacrifices. Shatapatha Brahmana indicates the prevalence of the same practice in eastern UP and Bihar. Once sanctioned by religion, sacrifices became a senseless destruction of cattle, and hence, an impediment to agricultural progress. Just to give an idea about the scale of animal wealth that was destroyed during sacrifices, mention may be made of Ashvamedha sacrifice in which 600 animals of various types were killed. Thus, large scale destruction of cattle wealth was proving to be detrimental to the growth of agriculture. Early Pali texts were deeply concerned about agriculture, sowing and cultivating. It is in this context that Buddhist emphasis on ahimsa and non injury assumes a new significance. Gautama Buddha maintained that animal sacrifice did not produce any merit. Suttanipata considered non-violence as the greatest virtue. Both the teachings of Buddhism and Jainism emphasized non-injury, and this became revolutionary teaching in a time when cattle were being killed for religion or food. .

 

2)      The introduction of iron, the resultant surplus, along with various other factors led to the formation of urban settlements in this period. Trade flourished and we see the emergence of trading groups like the setthis. The Brahmanical attitude to trade was not encouraging. Sea voyage was considered a taboo as this could impact the purity of the caste structure adversely. The earliest law givers prescribe trade and agriculture for the vaisyas who were ranked lower than the brahmanas and the kshatriyas. Besides, trade in men, liquids, cloth, leather, food grains etc. was prohibited for the brahmanas who could take to agriculture in times of distress. The people of Magadha and Anga were looked down upon as they traded in certain commodities. In contrast, the Buddhists treated sea voyages with approval. The first lay converts to Buddhism were from the trading class. Rich traders like Anathapindika gave generous donations to the Sangha.

3)      The advent and use of money currency led to the emergence of the practice of usury and money lending. The existing social ideology did not favour the lending of money on interest. As an early Lawgiver, Apastamba lays down that brahmanas should not accept food from a person who charges interest (vardhisikah). On the other hand, there are repeated references to debtor, creditor, debt and interest in the Pali texts. Money lending was not condemned. However, there was an emphasis on clearing of debts which supposedly made a person happy.

 

4)      The urban setting led to emergence of eating houses, prostitutes which did not find favour with the Brahmanical texts. Apastamba lays down that the brahmanas should not eat food prepared in shops. But Buddhist texts do not exhibit such an attitude. Early Pali texts refer to prostitutes living in cities. Amrapali was a famous courtesan who charged fifty kahapanas for one night. The Brahmanical texts did not approve of prostitution. According to Baudhayana, food offered by a prostitute or an unchaste woman is prohibited. In contrast the Buddha did not believe in any such injunctions. Women were admitted in the Buddhist order and there was no prohibition on prostitutes joining the Sangha.

5)      The new form of social set up that was characterized by the advent of iron, large settlements, new forms of wealth and valour led to the emergence of kshatriyas as a powerful class of warriors. Their powerful status brought them in direct competition with the brahmanas who always credited themselves at being at the top of the social hierarchy. The Buddha and Mahavira both belonged to the kshatriya class. The Buddhists accorded first place to the kshatriyas who they felt were the protector of the fields, and thus had a right over a part of the peasants produce in the form of taxes.

Thus, Buddhism may well be regarded as the product of the material milieu of the sixth century BCE. Negatively it undermined those religious practices which hampered the growth of agriculture. It was suited perfectly to the new detribalised class based and state based social structure which was the product of the second phase of iron.

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