Elaborate upon the nature and theories of motivation.

Motivation is a psychological phenomena which generates within an individual. A person feels the lack of certain needs, to satisfy which he feels working more. The need satisfying ego motivates a person to do better than he normally does.

• 1)      Motivation is an inner feeling which energizes a person to work more.
• 2)      The emotions or desires of a person prompt him for doing a particular work.
• 3)      There are unsatisfied needs of a person which disturb his equilibrium.
• 4)      A person moves to fulfill his unsatisfied needs by conditioning his energies.
• 5)      There are dormant energies in a person which are activated by channelizing them into actions.

 

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

1) Drive Reduction Model

The drive theory is one of the approaches to motivation. These theories are also called as the push theories of motivation as “the behaviour is pushed towards goals by driving force within the person or animal” (Morgan et al , 1996, pg 269).

Drive reduction model states that “lack of some basic biological need produces a drive to push an organism to satisfy that need” (Feldman, 2015 pg 288). Drive was already defined earlier in this unit and it can be explained as a tension or arousal that channelizes behaviour to fulfil a need. Drives can be of two types, primary and secondary. The examples of primary drives are thirst, hunger, sleep and sex that are mainly related to the physiological needs of an individual. Secondary drives are related to the previous experience and learning that leads to development of a need. For example, need for achievement in one’s field of work. Thus, this secondary drive will then channelize their work related behaviour.

 

An important term that needs to be discussed under this model is homeostasis, which can be explained as “the process by which all organisms work to maintain physiological equilibrium or balance around an optimal set point” (Feist and Rosenberg, 2015, pg 398). It can also be explained as the tendency of the body to maintain an internal state that is balanced or steady (Feldman, 2015). Thus, whenever there is any deviation from the ideal state or the set point, then the adjustments will be made by the body to reestablish the balanced state or achieve the set point thus restoring the balance. Homeostasis helps to operate the needs related to food, water, sleep, body temperature and so on.

Drive reduction theory explains how behaviours are channelised by primary drives, however, it does not adequately explain behaviours that have goal to maintain or increase arousal. For example, it may not help in explaining behaviour of an adolescent who enjoys a roller coaster ride or rides his/ her bike in full speed. Thus as such a behaviour that is thrilling and a bevaiour related to curiosity cannot be explained with the help of this model.

 

2) The Optimal Arousal Model

As was discussed under drive reduction model, that the model cannot be applied to explain the behaviours related to curiosity or behaviours that seek thrill. In such cases the optimal arousal model can be used. This model is based on the work carried out by Yerkes and Dodson in 1908, referred to as the Yerkes- Dodson law (Feist and Rosenberg, 2015). The model states that “we function best when we are moderately aroused or energised and both low and high arousal/ energy levels lead to poor performance” (Feist and Rosenberg, 2015, pg 399).

when the arousal is low or high, the performance is also low, however, an optimal level of arousal leads to high performance. Thus it can be said that individuals are motivated when certain situation is not very high or low in stimulation.

 

3) Incentive Theories

These can also be described as ‘pull’ theories (Morgan et al, 1996). These theories state that the motivation is as a result of desire to achieve external rewards or incentives. For example, a chocolate could serve as an incentive for a child to do his/ her homework in time, even though he/ she may not actually be hungry (that would be a cue that is internal). Though these theories do not explain why an individual may desire to fulfil certain needs even when no incentive is provided.

Thus it can be said that both, the drive reduction model and the incentive theories are relevant and can be considered together to explain what motivates certain behaviours. For example, when hungry, an individual will seek food (drive reduction model), however, he/ she will seek food that seems to be more appetising or appealing.

 

4) Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

This approach states that “motivation is a result of people’s thoughts, beliefs, expectations and goals’ (Feldman, 2015 pg. 289). Thus, a student will be motivated to study for examination based on his/ her expectation whether studying will lead to obtaining good marks in examination. This theory also helps differentiate between the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation that were discussed in detail under types of motivation. Individuals are more likely to work on a certain task or towards achieving a certain goal when he/ she is intrinsically motivated as opposed to extrinsically motivated. And it may so happen that attempts to increase extrinsic motivation may lead to decrease in intrinsic motivation (Feldman, 2015).

5) The Hierarchical Model

This model was stated by Maslow, often termed as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. In this model, the needs are placed in a hierarchical order. The model then states that the basic needs are to be fulfilled before the higher order needs are met. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can be explained with the help of a pyramid with basic needs at the bottom of the pyramid and the higher order needs at the top of the pyramid.

 

The basic needs are the physiological needs (related to the primary drive) namely need for food, water, sleep and sex. This is followed by the safety needs that are related to the need for an environment that is safe and secure. These two needs can be termed as lower order needs and once these are fulfilled, then the individual will move on to the other higher order needs. The next need is that of love and belongingness, that is related to the give and take of affection. This need is followed by yet another higher order need, that is, esteem needs, that are related to the need for development of a sense of self worth. And the last need is that of self actualisation, that is related to need for realisation of one’s full potential (Feist and Rosenberg, 2015) or can also be termed as a state of self fulfilment (Feldman, 2015).

6) Alderfer’s ERG Theory

The Existence, Relatedness and Growth theory by Alderfer is similar to the theory proposed by Maslow, however, the theory highlights only three levels in place of five levels. At the lowest level of the hierarchy is the existence needs and as the name suggests these are basic needs related to the physiological needs and the safety needs. The next is the relatedness needs that are related to social relationships. The last level is that of growth and these are related to the need to achieve one’s potential, develop competence and so on.

 

7) Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

This theory mainly focuses on two main factors that is hygiene factor and motivational factor and also states that satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from these two factors. Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are the two extremes and as such the opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction (and not dissatisfaction) and the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction (and not satisfaction). This theory mainly finds its application to work set up.

 

Hygiene Factors	Motivational Factors
Adequate workload and working conditions	High salary and bonuses
Salary;	Achievement/ promotion
Good relationship with supervisor, peers Recognition; and subordinates;	Recognition; Responsibility;
Security	Advancement and growth

 

The hygiene factors determine the level of dissatisfaction and if these needs are taken care of then the dissatisfaction will be low in the individual. Though, this will not contribute to satisfaction in the individual and the motivational factors are required to ensure that the individual experiences satisfaction.

 

8) McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

This theory was developed by David McClelland and it highlights the three basic needs: achievement, affiliation and power.

 

Need for achievement	This is related to achieving excellence, goals that are challenging, overcoming obstacles and difficulties, competition and persistence, need to master skills and so on.
Need for affiliation	This is related to maintaining close and intimate relationship with others.
Need for power	This is related to having an influence, impact and to have a control on others.

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