What is the difference Programmed and Non-Programmed Decisions?

6. What is the difference Programmed and Non-Programmed Decisions?

Ans – Herbert Simon (1997) has made the distinction between programmed and non- programmed decisions. He expresses that “decisions are programmed to the extent that they are repetitive and routine, to the extent that a definite procedure has worked out for handling them so that they don’t have to be treated from scratch each time they occur”. In programmed decisions, habits, skills and knowledge about the problem is important. In such decisions, mathematical models and computer can help the decision makers to arrive at rational decisions. For instance, in an organisation, dealing with financial rules, human resources, etc., are routine activities, which keep occurring in an organisation. If a set of procedure is worked out to deal with the same, then the issue of pay rolls, attendance of employees, etc., can be easily decided with the help of computer and procedures in place. On the other hand, non-programmed decisions are made to deal with affairs that are “novel, unstructured and unusually consequential”. No cut-and-tried methods would be available and each question or issue has to be dealt with separately. Training in skills relevant to the job and innovative ability become relevant and important to develop capacity to take proper and relevant decisions. For instance, an organisation may face financial crisis, due to a change in the approach of government. Such issues are new challenges for an organisation and a novel thinking is needed to arrive at a decision that protects the welfare of the organisation.

7. What do you mean by Organisational Equilibrium?

Ans – Barnard-Simon Theory of Organizational Equilibrium

The most important resource of an organization is it's people. Barnard stressed that motivating participants to continue to make contributions is one of the most important activities of management. Simon built Barnard's observations into the Barnard-Simon theory of organizational equilibrium, which refers to the organization's ability to attract sufficient contributions to ensure it's survival. The postulates are:

1) An organization is a system of interrelated social behaviors of a number of participants.

2) Each participant receives inducements form the organization for which the participant makes contributions.

3) The participant will continue as long as her or his perception is that the inducements are higher than their contributions.

4) The contributions from all the participants provides the pool of resources from which the organization manufactures the inducements.

5) Thus, an organization is “solvent” only as long as the contributions are sufficient to provide inducements necessary to sustain contributions.

8. Write a short on Easton’s Views on Public Policy Approach.

Ans – Easton's Views on Public Policy Approach:

The policy focus in political science is closely associated with David Easton's contribution. He provided a model of the political system which greatly influenced the way in which the emerging study of policy in the 1960s began to conceptualise the relationship between policy-making, policy outputs and its wider‘environment’.

The main characteristics of the Eastonian model is that of viewing the policy process in terms of received inputs, in the form of flows from the environment, mediated through inputs channels (parties, media, interest groups); demands within the political system and their conversion into policy outputs and outcomes.

The textbooks, which provided the ‘normal science’ of policy analysis were, for the most part, derived from the fusion of Laswell, Simon and Easton's models of decision- making and the political ‘system’The combination of rational stages and systems approaches thus afforded a more dynamic framework.

9. Define the term Governance and Good Governance.

Ans – Governance and Good Governance:

Governance in simple terms, implies the process of decision making and its implementation. It is broader in nature and has social, political and economic dimensions. As a process too, it is more comprehensive, as it includes along with the government, the private sector and civil society organisations. It is the overall responsibility of the State to protect the life and property of citizens.

The State through the instrument of government and process of governance strives to provide suitable living environment, maintain law and order and establish social justice and equality in society. The process of governance within a framework of open policy making, rule of law, transparent processes, accountability framework and a strong civil society is together considered as Good Governance.

Good corporate governance means more efficient utilisation of resources, better access to capital, better and higher quality employment opportunities, and a better chance of developing in a sustained way efficient domestic or regional capital markets.

10. Differentiate between ‘gender of governance’ and ‘governance of gender’.

Ans – Differentiate between gender of governance and governance of gender:

Gender has been conceptualized in various ways in the mainstream governance literature and critical feminist work. The relationship between the concepts of gender and governance can be viewed as governance of gender and gender governance.

The governance of gender is related to the way in which the values that permeate governance reflect traditional gender regimes. On the other hand, gender governance concerns governance in policy areas that, in the first instance, directly deal with women's issues. Gender governance is about the attempts to change gender regimes by inserting new policies, procedures, and values through global and multilevel governance, for example via the UN and the EU.

In feminist studies that have focused on the state, the literature that is of particular interest to governance studies looks at the role of the state in gender relations. It studies, for example, the representation of women in electoral bodies and parties, theorizes representation in political bodies, and looks at the organization of welfare politics.

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