Enumerate and describe the phases of enlightenment.

 There are mainly three phases or stages of enlightenment. The first phase was during the first half of 18th century which was influenced by the scientific revolution. Ideas of scientists and mathematicians like Isaac Newton, Galileo, Rene Descartes and Johannes Kepler had a profound impact on the enlightenment movement in this phase where scientific and mathematical methods were applied to various fields. The second phase was high enlightenment that was marked by ideas of French ‘philosophes’ (philosophers are called philosophes in French) like Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu and Rousseau. Voltaire in his 1764 book, Philosophical Dictionary argued that everything could be understood and explained rationally. The authority of the Church was challenged by different sections on the basis of reason. The last phase of enlightenment was the period from the last decade of the 18th century to beginning of the 19th century. This period witnessed the French revolution while there was shift from mercantilism to economic liberalism. This period also the saw rise of idealist philosophy in Germany as is evident in the works of Immanuel Kant. Enlightenment rationality made way for Romanticism in the first half of the 19th century as it laid more emphasis on emotion and individuality over reason.

Following are the characteristics of the enlightenment period:

1) Scientific Temper and Reason: The scientific revolution was important in laying down the foundations of enlightenment as it advocated reason to be the basis of authority and legitimacy. Many enlightenment philosophers had their background in mathematics and science and gave importance to rationality and empiricism to achieve human progress. In many cases, the enlightenment thinkers were either atheists or deists who would dismiss all spiritual and religious matters as metaphysical or superstition.

2) Scepticism towards Traditional Authority in Politics and Religion: Enlightenment involved an attitude where claims about knowledge were to be doubted. David Hume in his 1748 book, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding raised questions about the ability of human beings to know anything with certainty. It was because of scepticism that questions were raised about religion and political authority during enlightenment in Europe. Scepticism could also be seen in the philosophy of ancient Greece and Ajnana school of philosophy in ancient India. Enlightenment thinkers favoured popular sovereignty, but did not completely reject monarchy as an institution. Some of them were not against taking favours from monarchs of that time as well. It is also important to mention that the enlightenment thinkers were not revolutionaries, but those who believed in reform.

3) Human Progress: The idea of human progress was central to debates during enlightenment. The scientific discoveries instilled confidence among different sections of people that humans were capable of understanding the working of universe and could control environmental conditions. It was believed that humans had made progress from barbarous rusticity to an age of politeness. Here, there was a belief that humans are rational beings who would cooperate to achieve goals of enlightenment including happiness and progress. The optimistic belief of enlightenment was that the goodness and reason in human beings would create a prosperous, peaceful society and perfect people. French philosopher de Condorcet’s 1795 book, Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Spirit has shown the relationship between human rights and justice on one hand, and scientific progress on the other. He argued for unity among human beings irrespective of divisions like religion and race. Condorcet also said that expanding the vistas of knowledge in social and natural sciences would create a better and just world for individual freedom.

4) Local Variations: In Europe, enlightenment moved forward with different pace and local context in different countries. In Italy, the authority and power of Church decreased which led to increase in scientific fervour and innovation. In France, there was confrontation between the government and enlightenment thinkers while the British government ignored the enlightenment thinkers altogether. In Germany, enlightenment ideas appealed to the middle class and led to nationalism without posing any threat to authorities. The authorities in Russia encouraged fields of arts and science. In Scotland, enlightenment thinkers emphasised on political economy. Scottish thinkers like David Hume and Adam Smith laid emphasis on economic liberalism. Smith gave ground breaking concepts like free market capitalism, demand and supply, minimum state control (laissez-faire) and comparative advantage to argue that nations become affluent when they manufacture what they are best in making and import what they do not produce. Hence, the ideas of enlightenment varied from country to country and what would be proclaimed in Britain or France would not be applicable to other European countries. From Europe, the enlightenment ideas spread to other parts of the world with colonialism.

5) Empiricism: The word empiricism originates from Greek word, empeiria which means experience. It is a theory of knowledge which says all concepts and understanding is based on experience. It emphasised evidence, especially one that was gathered through scientific methods and experiments. One of the main proponents of empiricism was John Locke who said that human mind at birth is a blank slate (tabula rasa) and sensory experiences shape an individual’s ability to process and understand knowledge.

6) Cosmopolitanism: The core belief of cosmopolitanism is that human beings across the world form a single community. During the 18th century, terms like world citizenship and cosmopolitanism were used during the enlightenment period that expressed open minded and impartial attitude. A man with no fixed abode and who would not be a stranger anywhere was described as cosmopolitan by Encyclopedie, a collection of thoughts of enlightenment thinkers published in France between 1751 and 1772 and edited by Diderot. With rise in capitalism, trade and empires emerging which were global in nature, growing interest in Hellenistic philosophy, rise of the notion of human rights and human happiness, the idea of cosmopolitanism gained further ground during the enlightenment period. Kant in his 1795 essay, Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch argued for a cosmopolitan right or law that would guide the global society to achieve long-term peace. Kant addressed the post-Hobbesian international order, wherein there would be long-term peace among states and he tried to defend a cosmopolitan social contract. Such a contract was to be grounded in acts of human will and would promise to make laws that not only would restrain the power of the sovereign, but would also limit the possibility of war among states. This contract would also respect the rights of individuals as citizens of the world.

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