Describe the content theories of motivation.

 Content (or need) theories of motivation focus on factors internal to the individual that energise and direct behaviour. In general, such theories regard motivation as the product of internal drives that compel an individual to act or move toward the satisfaction of individual needs. Major content theories of motivation are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Alderfer’s ERG theory, Herzberg’s motivator hygiene theory, and McClelland’s learned needs or three-needs theory.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory (1954) proposes that humans are motivated by multiple needs and that these needs exist in a hierarchical order. Maslow identified five general types of motivating needs:

• Physiological needs: These are the most basic human physical needs, including food, water, and other conditions necessary for survival. In the organisational setting, these are reflected in the needs for pleasant working conditions and salary.

• Safety needs: These are the needs for a safe and secure physical and emotional environment and freedom from threats and emotional distress. In an organisational workplace, safety needs reflect the needs for safe jobs, fringe benefits and job security.

• Social needs: These needs reflect the desire to be accepted by one’s peers, have friendships, be loved, and be part of a group. In the organisation, these needs influence the desire for good relationships with coworkers and supervisors and participation in a work group.

• Esteem needs: These needs relate to the desire for a positive self-image and to receive attention, recognition, and appreciation from others. Within an organisation, esteem needs reflect a motivation for recognition, an increase in responsibility, high status, and credit for contributions to the organisation.

• Self-actualisation needs: These represent the need for self-fulfillment, which is the highest need category. They concern developing one’s full potential, increasing one’s competence, and becoming a better person. Selfactualisation needs can be met in the organisation by providing people with opportunities for growth, creativity, advancement and achievement.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

The ERG theory is an extension of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Alderfer (1972) suggested that needs could be classified into three categories, rather than five. These three types of needs are existence, relatedness, and growth. These needs encompass the needs proposed by Maslow and they can be satisfied within the work environment.

• Existence needs are concerned with physical survival and include the needs for food, water, shelter and physical safety. Organisations can satisfy these needs through pay, fringe benefits, a safe working environment and job security.

• Relatedness needs involve interactions with other people and the associated satisfaction in terms of emotional support, respect, recognition and belongingness. These needs can be satisfied on the job by developing interpersonal relationships with co-workers and mentors and off the job by having family and friends.

• Growth needs are those related to the attainment of one’s potential. These needs can be satisfied by using our skills and abilities to the fullest. A job can satisfy growth needs if it involves challenge, autonomy and creativity.

Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory

On the basis of research with engineers and accountants, Frederick Herzberg (1966) developed the motivator-hygiene theory. He asked his subjects to think about the times they felt especially good or bad about their jobs. Tabulating the reported good and bad feelings, Herzberg concluded that there are two sets of needs: the hygiene needs, which produce job dissatisfaction and the motivator needs, which produce job satisfaction. Taken together, the hygiene factors and motivators are known as Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation.

Hygiene factors (lower needs) are factors which ‘surround the job’ rather than the job itself; they are related to job context. These involve features of the work environment such as company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions and salary and benefits. The hygiene factors dissatisfy employees when they are absent. However, their presence brings employees only to a neutral state and by themselves, they are not strongly motivating. For example, a worker will only turn up to work if a business has provided a reasonable level of pay and safe working conditions but these factors will not make him work harder at his job once he is there.

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

McClelland’s theory (1971) suggests that needs are amplified or suppressed through self-concept, social norms, and past experience. Therefore, needs can be “learned”. Three of the primary needs in this theory are as follows:

• Need for achievement (nAch) – The desire to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards and to purse and attain goals.

• Need for affiliation (nAff) – The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

• Need for power (nPow) – The desire to control one’s environment and to influence others.

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