Assess the role of water resources in river-valley civilizations during ancient India and how human activities impacted them?

 Like Indus valley civilization in Vedic age too rivers were important and it thrived in western Gangetic basin. Aryans considered water as a symbol of spiritual purification. There are Vedic hymns addressed to Varuna, god of water. Rig Veda describes geography of early Vedic period, providing valuable information with respect to five major sources of water e.g. rivers, lakes etc. It mentions names of about 30 rivers. Indus (Sindhu) is most mentioned river with its tributaries (Shutudri, Vipasa, Purushini, Askini, Vitasa etc.). Rig Veda makes mention of water-lifting devices such as asmachakra, probably a wheel made of stone used for drawing water from deep wells.

Ghatayantra or Udghatana was another type of water-lifting device in which a drum-shaped wheel attached to a number of ghatas (earthen pots) was used to lift water. Atharvaveda refers to hydromodification and how to make new channels from rivers. By 5th century BCE we have references to mechanical devices worked by animals such as bullocks. Ashtadhyayi of Panini refers to Yugavaratra i.e. “yoke and rope by which bullocks were driven for raising water”.  Settlements located at confluence of rivers gave boost to economy. Magadha ruler Udayin shifted capital from Rajgriha to another strategic location Pataliputra which was located at confluence of three rivers viz.

Ganga, Son and Punpun while a fourth river Ghaghra joined Ganga near Pataliputra. Ganga and Son surrounded the capital on north and west and Punpun on south and east. Thus, the capital came to be regarded as jaldurga (water fort). Rivers also facilitated natural means of irrigation and fertile alluvial soil of the region contributed to agricultural surplus production. Plateau soils of south Bihar were not as productive as bhangar and khaddar soils of the north rich in silt and sand. It also resulted into growth of trade and commerce as the use of rivers for transportation was cheap and fast. Thus, rivers became important for commerce and communications.

Since there were not enough roads built, therefore, men and material were moved by boat. This enabled Magadha rulers to establish commanding communications on all sides. Further developments were seen in water management system by time of Mauryan empire. Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions techniques for measuring rainfall in different regions. Crops were sown in these areas depending upon amount of rainfall they received. It also describes water divining, water-lifting devices and several irrigation techniques. In south India Sangam literature throws light on irrigation technology in Tamilaham and location and construction of tanks, water-lifting devices, sluices and channels.

Early Chola rulers attempted to harness natural sources of water. Karikala Chola, first and most famous early Chola ruler, built Kallanai (the Grand Anicut) dam in order to control overflow of banks of Kaveri river which was major river of Chola kingdom. The river water was utilized for irrigation purpose. The dam was built with stones. Afterwards, Kalabhras, Pallavas, Pandyas and Cheras and imperial Cholas (in Kaveri basin) too promoted construction of several reservoirs and tanks.

Mahendravarman Pallava I (600-630 CE)built several irrigation tanks e.g. Mahendra tatakam at Mahendravadi. Pallava engineers who were skilled in construction of tanks and dams were known as jala sutradas. State also encouraged involvement of local people (individually or collectively) in hydraulic works. Thus, human interaction with nature gradually led to human intervention, impacting physical environment.

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